Character Of Davies In Caretaker By Harold Pinter

Davies, an old tramp, is the protagonist in The Caretaker. His portrayal, says Ruby Cohen, is â€Å"a bitter commentary on the human condition†. In their attitudes towards the old man, the human derelict, the two brothers present only surfaces contrasts. Mick begins by knocking him down, whereas Aston, instead of allowing him to die in despair, rescues him, shares his room with him and opens up home to him. Bother the brothers name the old man as caretaker, offer him a kind of scrutiny, which they both subsequently withdraw.Mick turns his back on the old man for failing to fulfil a role to which he never aspired, but Aston rejects him for what he is cantankerous, self-deluded and desperate. Of all Pinter's plays, The Caretaker makes the most bitter commentary on the human condition; instead of allowing an old man to die beaten in a pub brawl, â€Å"the System† wisest on tantalising him with faint hope, thereby immeasurably increasing his final desperate anguish. There i s perhaps a pun contained in the title: The Caretaker is twisted into taker on of care, for care is the human destiny. Davies-Aston RelationshipThe Davies-Aston relationship begins with Aston apparently in command of the situation as both hos and rescuer of the itinerant Davies. His calm, quiet acceptance of the uneasy guest seems a natural posture of superiority, and Davies at first accepts it as such. As both guest and rescued, Davies, in contrast to Aston, is noisy, repetitive and insecure. The evident aim of his early initiatives is to locate a potential common ground and probably one that will be seen his degree of dependency in the relationship. Ironically, his insecurity is increased by the very means that he adopts to diminish it.The fact that it is he, and not Aston, who feels compelled to talk undermines his position at the same time that his verbal manoeuvres seek to strengthen it. Davies: Sit down' Huh†¦ I haven't had a good sit down†¦. I haven ‘I had a p roper sit down†¦ well, I could tell you†¦ Aston: (placing the chair): Here you are. Davies: Ten minutes off for a tea-break in the middle of the night in that place and I couldn't find a seal, not one. All them Greeks had it, Poles, Greeks, Blacks, the lot of them, all them aliens had it. And they had me working there†¦All them Blacks had it, Blacks, Greeks, Poles, the lot of them, that's what doing me out of a seat, treating me like dirt. When he come at me tonight. I told him. (Pause. ) Aston: Take a seat. That Davies should invoke in rapid succession a sense of injury, a major prejudice, and a defiant self-reliance gives us a quick resume of the potential roles he might adopt relative to Aston. That Aston ignores all there†¦ providing sympathy for the first, reinforcement for the second, nor admiration for the third gives us an immediate indication of the likelihood of their success. Incoherent SpeechAston's seeming refusal to encourage any of Davies's tentati ve roles provides Davies with major problems. In the face of Aston's taciturnity he is forced to thresh arourd desperately for some means of altering the situation. It soon becomes apparent that his large supply of words is not matched by a similar supply of verbal strategies. As the conversation progresses he simply resorts to repeated use of the tactics implicit in his first speech. Appeals to Aston's sympathy and to his prejudices recur repeatedly, though Davies is smart enough to defend himself against becoming a victim of the kinds of prejudice to which he feels vulnerable.All them toe-rags, mate, got the manners of pigs, I might have been on the food a few years but you can take it from me I'm clean. I keep myself up. That's why I left my wife. Fortnight after I married her, no, not so much as that, no more than a week. I took the lid off a saucepan, you know what was in pan. A pile of her underclothing, unwashed. The pan for vegetables, it was. The vegetable pan. That's when I left her and I haven't seen her since. As he finishes speaking he finds himself to face to face with a â€Å"statue of Buddha standing on the gas stove†.The mutual incompatibility of the stone face and that of the tramp comments directly on the success of these efforts to manipulate Aston's attitudes and concerns. The silent inscrutable Buddha, incongruously perched on the gas stove, is as much beyond Davies's comprehension as the taciturn Aston surrounded by the diverse objects collected in his room. Efforts at Self-Reliance Davies's other category of approaches involves attempts to assert a degree of independence from Aston. But his efforts to create an image of self-reliance are even less successful than his previous moves and not entirely compatible with them.His appeals for sympathy for his age and health mingle uneasily with assertions that he intends revenge for his misuse at the cafe: â€Å"I'll get him. One night I'll get him. When I find myself around that direct ion. † The strength of this commitment is clearly undermined by Davies's vague reference to when it will occur and by his admission that this would not be his primary reason for going there. In spite of these repeated failures, Davies's stock of variations on his manoeuvres is not yet exhausted. Indeed he has yet to play his trump card.Unsuccessful as the heroic survivor of the cafe incident, unsung as the virtuous rejecter of an unhygienic wife, and un-sympathised with as a downtrodden, exploited old man, he invokes a new image of one on the verge of self-sufficiency and success. The tack is circuitous, involving shoes, the weather, a false name, and papers that will â€Å"prove everything†. But, in essence, the theme is that of a journey to Sidcup which will solve all problems and structure his life anew. Once the journey is made all difficies will disappear, and Davies will once more be a man to be reckoned with. Davies: If only I could get down to Sidcup!I've been w aiting for the weather to break. He's got my papers, this man I left them with, it's got it all down there. I could prove everything. Aston: How long's he had them? Davies: What? Aston: How long's he had them? Davies: Oh, must be†¦ it was in the war†¦ must be†¦ about near on fifteen years ago. But this manoeuvre, too, is thwarted by Aston's reactions to it. Clearly, Davies does not match his emphasis on the importance of the journey with a similar commitment to getting there. The time lag he admits to makes nonsense of the value he places on the journey, as Aston's puzzlement is evident.Once again the haphazard dialogue is matched revealingly with an item of junk that is eminently visible but obliquely connected to its surroundings. Abuses Aston's Kindness and Generosity At this point, Aston's contribution to the ‘conversation' seems rather unfriendly, to say the least. Whatever Davies does to try to improve the connection between himself and Aston is neutralise d by his inability to elicit from Aston the responses he needs. To Davies it seems that Aston's posture of quiet superiority is a consistent strategic imperviousness to his needs and wiles.But Aston's behaviour seems peculiarly inconsistent. His apparent unconcern for Davies's psychological needs is sharply contrasted with an evident concern for his physical needs. Aston's initial generosity toward Davies in the cafe is extended by offers of cigarettes, shoes and money, and by a willingness to go and retrieve Davies's belongings for him. This inconsistency, this apparent lack of connection between two aspects of Aston's behaviour, is another manifestation of juxtaposed but unclearly linked data in the play.But its effect on the relationship is by no means unclear; this inconsistency disorients Davies and maintains his subservience as effectively as Mick's later inconsistent conversation. As this section progresses, however, it gradually becomes apparent that Aston's efforts (unlike Mick's) are not deliberately aimed at this goal. Indeed, it is very difficult at this point to perceive a deliberate aim in any of Aston's behavior. It does seem clear, however, that he does not share Davies's urgent need for a verbally explicit rapport. The problem the audience has in understanding Aston is obviously shared by Davies.Sensing the failure of his efforts to impose on Aston any of the relationship roles he has in mind, Davies eventually switches to trying to draw out of Aston information that might guide him to more successful manoeuvres. Feeding him topics dealing with The Room and its contents, Davies once more finds himself making little headway: Davies: You got any more rooms then, have you? Aston: Where? Davies: I mean, along the landing here†¦ up the landing there†¦ Aston: They're out of commission. Davies: Get away. Aston: They need a lot of doing to. (Slight Pause. ) Davies: What about downstairs?Aston: That's closed up. Needs seeing to†¦ The flo ors†¦ (Pause. ) Aston's Reticence Aston's unwillingness to discuss any of these more neutral topics suggests that his reluctance to converse with Davies is motivated by something more than mere resistance to Davies's wiles; the reluctance seems to proceed from a general antipathy toward any kind of conversation. But, paradoxically, he is not entirely unwilling to talk. While evasive about the house and his legal relationship to it, he does venture the information that he â€Å"might build† a shed in the back garden.This willingness to talk is further indicated by a sudden longer statement on the drinking of Guinness—a topic that he discusses with a seriousness that does little to calm the puzzled, uneasy Davies. I went into the pub the other day. Ordered a Guinness. They gave it to me in a thick mug. I sat down but I couldn't drink it. I can't drink Guinness from a thick mug. I only like it out of a thin glass. I had a few sips but I couldn't finish it. This relat es to nothing previously discussed, and whatever significance it has for Aston is not shared by Davies, who resorts to a quick change of subject.The short speech is undoubtedly odd, but the kind of oddity it represents provides the first clear indication of the basic difficulty confronting the pair. If Davies fails to respond to or follow up on this topic because he is unable to locate its significance, perhaps this is also the reason for Aston's similar reactions to Davies's conversation topics. The speech itself, while specifying nothing precisely undermines Davies's operating assumption that Aston's taciturnity is simply a manifestation of superiority and disinterest.Such an assumption has already been brought into question by Aston's non-verbal generosity to Davies, and this speech suggests that Aston, in spite of his general silence, also has a need to talk. The section ends with Aston, as he has done extensively during this opening scene, devoting his attention to a faulty plu g on an old electric toaster. His persistent concern for this faulty connection characterises the activity of the opening section: potential links between the characters remain uncertain because the means of establishing appropriate connections has gone awry.Davies: I used to know a bootmaker in Action. He was a good mate to me. (Pause) You know what that bastard monk said to me? (Pause) How many more Blacks you got around here then? Plays One Brother Against the Other That is when Davies turns to Mick, who plays a cat-and-mouse game with him. Davies tries to play one brother against the other in order to keep a roof over his head. He has been out on the road most of his life and he would like to cling to the crumbs he is offered. But his efforts are futile.Mick calls him â€Å"a fibber† who stinks the place out and Aston, in spite of all his earlier generosity, turns his back upon him. Davies's final image that we have, despite his desperate, pitiable condition is that of an old tramp who is ungrateful, self-deluded and cantankerous as he finally pleads with Aston: But†¦ lost†¦ look†¦ listen†¦ listen here †¦ I mean†¦. what am I going to do?†¦ What shall I do?†¦ Where am I going to go?†¦ Listen†¦ If I got down†¦ If I was to†¦ get my papers†¦ would you†¦ would you let†¦ would you†¦ if I got down†¦ got my†¦.

Clarice Lispector’s Women Characters Essay

I sat before my glass one day, And conjured up a vision bare, Unlike the aspects glad and gay, That erst were found reflected there- The vision of a woman, wild With more than womanly despair.[1] The Italian feminist writer Elsa Morante stated that: â€Å"One woman’s agony in her room is something so insignificant that it casts no shadow across the great universe†[2]. However true this might be, Clarice Lispector manages to give voice to her female character’s feelings in a such overwhelming way that the reader’s own universe cannot remain indifferent. Reading Lispector’s works, especially her short stories, is like plunging into an apparently innocuous moment of a woman’s life but rapidly and unavoidably be dragged into the unreachable depths and the darkest recesses of her psychology. It never turns out to be a merely pleasure trip. Influenced by existentialist authors, Lispector’s over-riding concern revolves around woman condition in its entirety[3]. It is a definitely complex and multi-faceted matter, which encompasses all the issues of the human condition exasperated by the womanhood’s burdens. Alongside with the unbearable awareness towards the absurdity of life and its revealed lack of meaning, the writer has to deal with the role of the women in a male oriented society, their existential sufferings and failures, the sense of relationships and isolation, their unfulfilled aspirations given up to conform to an imposed social scheme, the ideas of family and alienation, their forlorn hopes and submissiveness. The reader is prompted to ask himself: ‘to what extent is the woman allowed to be herself before becoming the objectification of somebody else’s aspirations?’ The concept of identity is therefore the pivot of all this speculation: Clarice explores the dynamics of self-discovery, the different and always traumatic ways in which her characters find or are forced to face their true authentic self and the conflict these achievements generate in their life. In this essay, I will pay close attention to the object of the mirror, a recurrent image in Lispector’s fiction, where it occupies a key role in the process of â€Å"autoconhecimento e expressà £o, contemplaà §Ãƒ £o e aà §Ãƒ £o, conhecimento das coisas e relaà §Ãƒ µes inter-subjetivas†[4]. In the consideration of this point, I will draw on the psychological theories that explained the phenomenon of visual self-identification, highlighting the correspondences in the behaviour of the woman characters. I will also refer to the literary criticism that handled with the Lispectorian â€Å"potà ªncia mà ¡gica do olhar†[5]. Then, I will focus on the range of feminine figures portrayed in Laà §os de famà ­lia, pointing out how they underwent the experience of self-awareness, what they have in common and where they are different. Finally, I will take into account Clarice’s short article â€Å"Espelho mà ¡gico†, which I found to be a particularly valu able contribution to this analysis and a sort of locking ring to this paper. Let’s start by considering the leitmotif of the mirror and the importance of sight. To try to unfold the copious polysemic connotations that the mirror bears, it is worth briefly considering it under a psychoanalytic point of view. Several are the currents that acknowledged the mirror to be one the most powerful tool in the process of the analysis and identification of the self. Jaques Lacan theorised the famous concept of the â€Å"mirror stage†: the child starts to identify with the reflection of itself, discerning the â€Å"I† in the mirror and the â€Å"I† outside the mirror. Along with OLTRE!!! The identification, however, comes the sense of alienation, due to the perception of the mirror image as an Other self. Experiencing this splitting, the subject keeps searching a constant confirmation of its identity from/by/in the confrontation with other people and objects. By the visual contacts, as a sort of multiplicity of mirrors, the sense of selfhood ca n be reinforced by returned gazes of recognition[6]. The idea that the people interacting with the subject act as mirrors for itself has also been substantiated by Charles Horton Cooley. He went further and advanced the social psychological concept of the looking-glass self, according to which ‘identity is created out of the tension between natural impulses that the individual must actively develop and the social structures that the individual must actively appropriate’[7]. He points out that there are three stages through which a person goes: she/he imagines how she must appear to others, she/he imagines the judgment of that appearance, she/he develops her/him self through the judgments of others[8]. But what happens when the social structures develop a diffused and subjugating system of judgements and bias that deeply interfere with the expression of the individual impulses? The result is deep manipulation of somebody’s own self, where self-denial tendencies usually prevail as a compromise between the two tensions. This is actually what happen to Clarice’s women characters. When they look in the mirror, they see (or glimpse) themselves how they truly are, but also how they are not allowed, or do not dare, to be. This social conditioning is clearly summarised by John Berger: ‘To be born a woman has been to be born, within an allotted and confined space, into the keeping of men. The social presence of woman has developed as a result of their ingenuity in living under such tutelage within such limited space. But this has been at the cost of a woman’s self being split into two. A woman must continually watch herself [†¦] because how she appears to others, and ultimately how she appears to men, is of crucial importance for what is normally thought of as the success of her life’[9] Bearing in mind these concepts, let’s now delve into the feminine universe of Laà §os de famà ­lia. The first aspects to remark is that Lispector’s characters are never stereotypical women. They cannot be enclosed in any womanly clichà ©, even if they share the same experiences and they sometimes seem to be facets of the same person. Clarice introduces the reader to different women, or again different stages in life of only one: daughter, adolescent, wife, mistress, mother, grandmother. Emotional detachment is one of the thing they have in common. They all show unsolvable inability to connect with others in a deep and meaningful way. Although being present and even physically close to their families, they are not emotionally present in the relationships. They dissociate, both experiencing emotional numbing, both restraining their own true feeling. Moreover, they do not find a reliable interlocutor in their partners or friends, because the image that the latter project on them is distorted and limited to the role they unconsciously or not impose on them. As previously illustrated, the achievement of self-identity requires an interchanging dialogical recognition between one I and one other that acknowledge that I as a whole[10]. Clarice’s women are left alone. Nevertheless, even when they seem to live the identity they have been given (therefore being self-denial), their true inner self, their real subjectivity suddenly bursts out. There is a kind of fil rouge that pools all the short stories: the narrative nucleus is represented by a moment of conflictive tension, an interior crisis, a rupture. At times, it is sufficient the most trifling event to trigger an epiphany, an instant of dramatic awareness. Everything that has been kept suppressed explode in a flood of thoughts, reminiscences and revelations. The body abruptly paralyses and time stands still: life is revealed, meaning is lost, the measure of identity and freedom are found. But understanding is a responsibility, and Clarice pushes her characters to their limits. They hang on the balance between stepping back or going beyond: utterly disoriented, they face the danger of living. Regarding this point, Professor Earl E. Fitz explains that: ‘they come to grips with themselves, with who and what they really are and, finally, react to this unexpectedly experienced flash of insight by either rejecting the â€Å"new self† that would emerge or by actually undertaking the creation of a new self, a new and authentic identity. [†¦] But the price of real freedom is always high and appears in Lispector’s fiction as the discomforting and solipsistic realisation that we are all alone, isolated in our solitude, and tormented by the need to communicate’[11]. Epiphanies, alienation and incommunicability show close affinities with the literary world depicted by Sartre and Camus. The encounter of the conscience with the reality, more specifically with the experience of the Absurd and the sense of meaningless of life, always generate unease in the protagonists. Even if Lispector has asserted that her naà ºsea is not the nausà ©e of Sartre[12], the epiphanic moments are associated with upsetting feelings: nausea and daze in Amor, anger in Feliz Aniversà ¡rio, hatred in O bà ºfalo, fear in Preciosidade, nausea and sadness in Devaneio e embriaguez duma rapariga ,nausea and derangement in Imitaà §Ãƒ £o da rosa. Moreover, Lispector’s characters experience these unconscious outburst via their sense of sight, similarly to Sartrian protagonists. In Amor, Ana’s reality suddenly falls apart with the simple view of a blind man chewing a chewing gum on the tram. The sudden braking of the tram is like a tug to her subconscious, the detonator of her repressed unhappiness and her existential in-satisfaction. The woman feels an emotional collapse, she is overwhelmed by nausea and compassion. A moment later, she feels emptied and alienated as she wanders through the Jardim Bà ´tanico. When she manages to get home, her husband takes her by the hand, â€Å"sem olhar para trà ¡s, afastando-a do perigo de viver†[13]. So she comes back to her previous existence, but she has now become aware that she loves her world with repugnance, loathing. She represents the women who are conscious of the fact that something essential is missing in their life, that what they are surrounded by is not what they really wanted, is not enough to fulfil them. At the end of the day she look at herself in the mirror, â€Å"por um instante sem nenhum mundo no coraà §Ãƒ £o. Antes de se deitar, como se apagasse uma vela, soprou a pequena flama do dia.†[14] The process is alike in O bà ºfalo. The unnamed protagonist is destroyed by unreciprocated love. ‘Eu te odeio, disse a mulher, muito depressa, a um homem que nà £o a amava. Mas a mulher sà ³ sabia amar e perdoar, e ‘se aquela mulher perdoasse mais uma vez, uma sà ³ vez que fosse, sua vida estaria perdida’. In order to bear the pain, she tries to learn how to hate by the wild nature of the animals. Wandering in a zoo, she encounters a buffalo (something close to the male sexual symbology). â€Å"Ela nà £o olhou a cara. [†¦] Olhou os seus olhos. E os olhos do bà ºfalo, os olhos olharam seus olhos†. The climax is achieved by the visual contact between their eyes. She feels so jarred that she faints. The condition of woman victim of love finds its catharsis in this epiphany closed to sexual ecstasy. Visual contact and self-perception take on another nuance in Preciosidade. The protagonist is an adolescent girl, who tries to avoid having anyone look at her. She feels she must protect an ambiguous preciousness she owns. Either it is referred to her virginity or simply to her being a girl, by eschewing male’s gazes she knows she will keep from becoming an objectification of their desire. More complex are the eye contacts in the short story Laà §os de famà ­lia. The title includes the emblematic essence of family relationships. The semantic ambivalence of laà §os can either be seen in a positive way, â€Å"love bonds†, or in a negative one, like â€Å"binding chains†. The protagonist Catarina and her mother epitomise this ambivalence, in living their strained relationship as a mother and as an adult daughter. Sentiments are no longer expressed, love mixes with hate, visual contact is unbearable. Waiting for the train to leave, the mother looks at herself in pocket mirror to fill the emptiness left by the lack of communication with Catarina. Once home, Catarina take a walk with her son, tying him to her in another noxious kind of love binding. Very important is the figure of the husband, left out, excluded. He need her, but awkwardly tries to exercise his apparent power to show off his role. Another strongly symbolic story is Imitaà §Ãƒ £o da rosa. The protagonist is Laura, a woman who experienced a rupture, both physical with a nervous breakdown, both social, not being able to adhere again at the role of wife she used to perform before her illness. The character is therefore divided between two attitudes: the â€Å"impersonal† woman, who tries to be obedient to the established pattern of being a wife, and the â€Å"personal† woman, that breaks the contract and the social expectation codes. Roberto Corrà ªa dos Santos[15] analyses the duplicity of Laura’s nature and the reflection it has on the relationship with her husband. Corrà ªa dos Santos divides her feelings and her behaviours in two moments: the â€Å"Tempo de obedià ªncia† and the â€Å"Tempo de ruptura†. During the â€Å"Tempo de obedià ªncia†, the attitude of her husband towards Laura shows a man â€Å"esquecido de sua mulher, em paz, recostado com bandono† whereas Laura is â€Å"submissa, atende o marido de braà §o dado, fala sobre coisas de mulheres†. During the â€Å"tempo de ruptura†, the husband turns out to be â€Å"cansado e perplexo, mudo de preocupaà §Ãƒ £o, tà ­mido, com um hà ¡lito infeliz†, while she becomes â€Å"super-humana, tranqà ¼ila em seu isolamento brilhante, como un barco tranqà ¼ilo, de perfeià §Ãƒ £o acordata†[16]. Like the example of Carlota’s husband, Laura’s husband metaphorically shrinks the more and more his wife finds her dimension of self-confidence. Fitz, E. Earl sums up: â€Å"Consistent with Lispector’s view that each of us fight a battle for control of the chaos that envelops us, she shows poignantly how the woman in the story is growing in terms of consciousness and self-understanding (tangled as this itself is) while the man with whom she is living [†¦] is stupidly and dully trapped in his own uninteresting view of reality, [†¦] dominated by the spurious â€Å"clarity† of his conventional thought, his socially prescribed clichà ©s and unoriginal thinking†[17] In addition to these considerations, it is relevant to stress that the concept of the mirror as fundamental tool in the process of self-perception has also been taken up by Clarice outside her fictional work. Espelho mà ¡gico is short article she wrote when she contributed to Dià ¡rio da Noite. It was published in 1960, in a culumn entitled â€Å"Sà ³ para mulheres†, which suggests a hidden feminine complicity that strengthens the message the author wants to conveyed: Nà £o à © sà ³ o espelho da madrasta de Branca de Neve que à © mà ¡gico. A verdade à © que todo espelho tem a mesma magia. [†¦] Vocà ª nà £o hà ¡ de perguntar: â€Å"Quem à © mais bela do que eu†. O melhor à © perguntar ao espelho: â€Å"Como posso ficar mais bela do que eu?† Eis os ingredientes para um espelho mà ¡gico: 1) um espelho propriamente dito, de preferà ªncia daqueles de corpo inteiro; 2) vocà ª mesma diante do espelho; 3) coragem. [†¦] Coragem para se ver, em vez de se imaginar. Sà ³ depois de se enxergar realmente, à © que vocà ª poderà ¡ comeà §ar a se imaginar. [†¦]Mas lembre-se: a imaginaà §Ãƒ £o sà ³ nos serve quando baseada na realidade. Seu â€Å"material de trabalho† à © a realidade a respeito de vocà ª mesma. Nà £o vou lhe dizer o que vocà ª deve fazer para melhorar de aparà ªncia. Nà £o tenho a pretensà £o de ensinar peixe a nadar. E sà ³ uma coisa à © que vocà ª nà £o sabe: que vocà ª sabe nadar. Quero dizer, se vocà ª tiver confianà §a em vocà ª mesma, descobrirà ¡ que sabe muito mais do que pensa. Mas, de qualquer modo, estarei aqui para ajudar a vocà ª a nà £o esquecer que sabe. Here, Clarice recurs to the archetype of the magic mirror in the fairy tale, positioning the question of identity in an apparently simple layer of interpretation. The strength of this passage, though, resides in the shifting of the cultural pattern of the identification of the self: the answer is not any more given by the mirror, but acknowledged directly by the person who mirrors herself. Who is answering is indeed the same woman who asked, providing herself with the true measure of her renewed â€Å"I† descried alone, without the need of something (or somebody) else who sees her from the outside. This is the new espelho mà ¡gico Clarice hopes for, where the magic comes from the other side on the glass: the person. More than an article, it becomes a suggestion, an exhortation. It takes some efforts, some coragem para se ver, se enxergar, but this is necessary in order to build a new parameter for the individual existence, a new pattern of legitimisation of the self. It is the only way for women to ged rid of the old and tight social and cultural paradigms and to confront themselves with new references based on their quotidian choices and prerogatives. A new perspective is offered, where beauty stops being a primary attribute and leaves its place to self-confidence and fortitude. This new woman holds in her hands a â€Å"material de trabalho†, the realidade a respeito de si mesma. She could represent a new possible social feminine figure, who believes in her capability to promote a change and to be in charge of her own destiny. While in her stories she often left her characters helpless and powerless in front of their mirrors, in the real world Clarice let this mirror become a threshold towards a higher dimension, like an open portal in front of the woman. The article end is contract-like: women will try to operate this transformation and the author will watch over her, with her novels and stories. For the aforementioned reasons, there is no doubt that Lispector’s fictional universe is as wide and deep as the themes it deals with. To understand how her complex feminine characters perceive themselves, it is necessary to take into account the issue of the human condition in its entirety, applied to the point of view of women. Nonetheless, every story she wrote encompasses a multitude of smaller senses and significances, so that more than one reading is needed in order to disclose all of them. Every reader can easily agree with Hà ©là ¨ne Cixous, who stated that: â€Å"Clarice’s text, like Kafka’s, are not narratives. They contain a secret, a lesson. But this secret and this lesson are dispersed in the verbal space in such a way that the meaning cannot be apprehended at a first reading.†[18] Psychoanalytic perspective helps to explain her literary explorations of the question of identity, the importance of sight, and the self-perception her characters achieve in their reflection in the mirror or in someone else’s eyes. The in-depth analysis of the women in Laà §os de famà ­lia also provides a comprehensive picture of Clarice’s profound sensibility and complex psychology. The plot, the setting, the description of the characters and their relational dynamics epitomises Lispectorian imaginary. As far as the mirror is concerned, it undoubtedly hold an important position in Clarice’s symbolism and recurs also in her non-fictional works. The article Espelho mà ¡gico represents a significant contribution in the comprehension of her Weltanschauung, and creates a concrete link between her imaginative world and the tangible reality. ———————– [1] Mary Elizabeth Coleridge The Other Side of a Mirror, 1896 [2] Elsa Morante, Arturo’s Island, p. 187 [3] Lispector does not actually represent all women in her text, but she rather focuses on the ones she belongs to and presumably knows the most: the middle-class white urban women. With the expression â€Å"woman condition in its entirety† I mean the whole range of feminine experiences a given woman can go through during her life. [4] Nunes, Benedito, Clarice Lispector. Sà £o Paulo: Edià §Ãƒ µes Quà ­ron, 1973 p. 95 [5] Ibid, p. 95 [6] Lacan, Jaques, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis. London: Penguin. 1994 p 70-72 [7] Cooley, Charles H. On Self and Social Organization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998 p 20 [8] Cooley, Charles H. Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribner’s, 1902. pp. 183-184 [9] Berger, John, Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin, 1972 [10] See also: Psychology of Self. Kohut, Heinz The Analysis of the Self. New York: International Universities Press, 1971 [11] Fitz, E. Earl Clarice Lispector. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1985, p. 48 [12] Lowe, Elizabeth. The Passion According to C.L.: Elizabeth Lowe interviews Clarice Lispector. Review, 24: p 36 [13] Lispector, Clarice, Laà §os de Famà ­lia. Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Josà © Olympio Editora S.A., 1976 p 24 [14] Ibid, p 26 [15] Corrà ªa dos Santos, Roberto Lendo Clarice Lispector. Sà £o Paulo: Atual Editora LTDA, 1986 p. 21 [16] Lispector, Clarice, Laà §os de Famà ­lia. Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Josà © Olympio Editora S.A., 1976 p 36-40 [17] Fitz, E. Earl Clarice Lispector. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1985, p. 44 [18] Cixous, Hà ©là ¨ne, Reading with Clarice Lispector. Trans. By Verena Andermatt Conley. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990 p 98

Hubris in Oedipus Essay

Oedipus the King is considered one of the greatest classical tragedies ever written. When Sophocles wrote this great play, he followed the concept of tragedy which dictated that the tragic hero should embody a tragic flaw in his character which acts as a motivation for the character’s eventual downfall. In Oedipus the King, the tragic flaw of the play’s hero, Oedipus, is centered on the concept of hubris, or excessive and destructive pride. Oedipus, through his pride, ultimately experiences the worst tragedies that can befall an individual; however, if the events of the play are examined closely, each of the tragic events can in some way be connected to Oedipus’ pride. One key example (in the myth of Oedipus which provided background for the play) is when Oedipus unknowingly murders his own father. Despite being warned by the oracle that he was destined to â€Å"shed with his own hand† his father’s blood, Oedipus quarrels with Laius on the road to Thebes over whose wagon had the right-of-way and his ultimate anger fueled by hubris led Oedipus to unwittingly murder his own father. After solving the Sphinx’s riddle and unknowingly marrying his own mother, Oedipus, as King, must face a plague which is threatening Thebes. The plague was sent as a form of revenge by the gods because of Laius’s murder. To help him find out the reason behind the plague, Oedipus consults a prophet named Tiresias, who is blind. When the prophet warns Oedipus to stop seeking the true murderer of Laius, Oedipus’s pride leads him to suspect Tiresias of treachery and dishonesty. Even though Oedipus has been warned all along about hsi destiny, he continues to try to control fate and therefore becomes further and further entangled in tragedy. It is his excessive pride that drives him to refuse to listen to the wisdom of those around him, even prophets. Eventually, Oedipus says during the play that he is superior to the gods, and this is a blatant expression of his hubris:â€Å"You pray to the gods? Let me grant your prayers† (Oedipus, 254). By saying this, it is clear that Oedipus considers himself even a greater power as king than the god themselves. A central part of the impact of Oedipus’s hubris is the dramatic irony which takes place in the play. The irony of Oedipus not knowing that he has murdered his own father and married his own mother and the irony that he is in fact the one responsible for the plague on Thebes and that his desire to rid the land of Laius’s murderer would lead to himself are all possible because of Oedipus’s extreme pride. He is oblivious to the possibility that the oracle’s predictions or the words of the blind prophet could indicate anything other than the elevation of his own glory and strength that his eventual tragic fall actually begins simultaneously with his rise to kingship and power, with the audience seeing the irony. The reason that Sophocles created such an ironic level of expression for the extreme hubris of Oedipus was to demonstrate to his audience that a great tragedy is always created by the inner-flaw or weakness of its main character. The Greeks regarded pride or hubris as one of the most common and dangerous of personal flaws and this play demonstrated for them and also for modern audiences the impact of excessive pride when carried to extreme levels of power and influence, although the lessons learned in the play are also applicable to common people in their everyday lives. By using irony, exaggeration, and an epic scale of symbols, Sophocles was able to present his audience with a frightening portrayal of the negative impacts of hubris or excessive pride.

The Effect TV Has on Children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Effect TV Has on Children - Essay Example According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), kids in the United States watch about 4 hours of TV a day. According to the AAP guidelines, children under age 2 should have no "screen time" (TV, DVDs or videotapes, computers, or video games) at all. During the first 2 years, a critical time for brain development, TV can get in the way of exploring, learning, and spending time interacting and playing with parents and others, which help young children, develop the skills they need to grow cognitively, physically, socially, and emotionally. There is no doubt that TV can be an excellent educator and entertainer. But despite its advantages, too much television can be detrimental. Several types of research around the world have shown that children who consistently spend more than 4 hours per day watching TV are more likely to be overweight. In earlier days before the television, children played outdoors more and used their minds to be more creative. Excessive television viewing promotes inactivity. Health experts have long linked excessive TV-watching to obesity - a significant health problem today. While watching TV, children are inactive and tend to snack which contributes to poor nutrition. They're also bombarded with advertising messages that encourage them to eat unhealthy foods such as potato chips and empty-calorie soft drinks that often become preferred snack foods. According to the AAP, children in the United States see 40,000 commercials each year. From junk food and soft drink advertisements, children persuade t heir parents to buy them. This leads to major health problems and is a serious concern around the world (Dowshen and Gavin, 2005).     

Argumentative Synthesis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Argumentative Synthesis - Essay Example The income inequality has widened tremendously, dependency ratio has increased, and access to basic needs are becoming an issue for quite a number of people from the lower class. On the other hand, America stills remains the world’s superpower boasting of the largest economy, unparalleled democracy and prosperity of its citizens. Considering America is experiencing an equal share of troubles on one hand and prosperity on the other hand, is America actually living the American dream? The idea of the living the American dream is a fallacy considering the ever-widening income gap between the rich and the poor, the burgeoning budget deficit, and the increasingly over-dependent youthful population. Unfortunately, the present situation in America have left so many questioning if at all these dream is still valid. Cal Thomas, a panellist at Fox News Watch, argues that unless radical changes are made, the American Dream is long over. Thomas supports Bob Herbert, a columnist at New York Times, who writes that the sad state of the economy, jobs, budget deficits, and constant war fares are all a pointer of the fact that there is nothing much left of the American Dream. The fundamental argument expressed by Thomas is that the American government has become so dysfunctional creating an over-dependency and cant-do attitude among its citizens. This behaviour does not reflect the American Dream at all. The same sentiments are echoed by Robert Frank, an economic columnist of the New York Times, who feels that it is impossible to live this dream with such a widening income inequality. Brandon King holds however holds a contrary view. He claims that the ideal and values of the American Drea m are still alive based on America’s ability to come out of hardships such as the Great Depression. Certainly, there exists a very thin line between defining success and failure in American dream. As Thomas sees it there are far more problem in

Relationships Suffer When a Person is Depressed Essay

Relationships Suffer When a Person is Depressed - Essay Example As a person’s partner is likely to be in their company more than anyone else, and relies on them and has certain expectations for their relationship, then it is the partner which is likely to feel the adverse affects of the person’s depression more than anyone else. The exact ways in which depression causes these types of relationships to suffer, include immediate, remote and contributing factors. The immediate cause of a suffering relationship due to an individual’s depression is the psychological manifestation of the depression itself. When a person is depressed, they often experience feelings of loneliness, sadness, despair, unhappiness and isolation. These feelings are very strong and persistent in the condition of depression, hence such a diagnosis. Due to the strength of these undesirable feelings, a person can easily change in terms of demeanour, mood, personality, outlook and behaviour. They may want to avoid social activities and any occasion where they must interact with others. They may be in very low moods which makes them difficult to talk to and engaging with them while they are like this is often quite an arduous and frustrating experience. They often find it impossible to be optimistic, friendly or willing to try anything new. All of these things are a manifestation of the feelings they experience when depressed. In this way, depressions seriously can affect the individual’s relationship. If the persons partner is forced to tolerate being with someone who is unhappy, moody, pessimistic and unwilling to socialize or engage in activities, this can easily and quickly put a strain on the relationship. Another possible cause of relationships suffering when a person is depressed is previous abuse of some type, which is a remote cause. For example, if the depressed

Internet Banking in the United Kingdom Coursework

Internet Banking in the United Kingdom - Coursework Example One of the markets leading internet banks egg.com allows individuals to do all the above plus it allows for costumers to get insurance quotes for they're cars, homes, travels, lives & health and emergency cover against thefts or losses of keys, wallets and cards etc (Egg.com, 2006). HSBC are trying to cut counter opening times at branches as online customers are cheaper costing less than one tenth of normal branch customers, It is thought that many are in favour of online banking, while others are opposed to the thought of online banking, below are the views of a computer literate, middle aged working woman: 'I can manage fine with ATMs, internet banking and so on. But think about those who are elderly, visually impaired or otherwise struggle with technological advances. A friendly face at a counter is what they are used to and is probably what they want. My 80 year old father no longer uses an ATM out in the open. He gets his cash from a supermarket checkout, as he feels safer.' Carolyn Jones, UK (BBC News, 2002). Barclays also announced that they are closing 200 banks leading to the loss of around 6000 jobs somewhat due to the materialization of internet banking It is also believed this will result in cost reductions of 200m a year (BBC

Impact of foreign exchange rate on stock returns Dissertation

Impact of foreign exchange rate on stock returns - Dissertation Example Table 1 reports the results of Augmented Dickey Fuller test of unit root for the stock indices and exchange rates of both the UK and Pakistan. The test has further been applied at different levels as well as in the first difference form. The findings will be reported in terms of each country starting with the UK first then Pakistan. Both the ADF and regression results will be presented for the country indices and then for each of the companies. This chapter is divided into several parts with the main parts comprising study findings for the UK (both ADF test and regression), study findings from Pakistan (ADF and regression), and finally the analysis section where these findings are discussed and analyzed. 5.2 Findings (UK) Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) Test Table 1 below presents ADF results for UK companies and GBP/USD rate. As is evident in the table, the results include the FTSE 100 index and ten major companies operating in the UK. Table 2 provides the findings of the ADF test for the national exchange rate (EX) of the GBP against the GBP. Table 1: Augmented Dickey Fuller test (UK companies and FTSE 100 Index) Augmented Dickey fuller (ADF) test (UK companies and FTSE 100 Index) Index + companies S= Index value/ stock price Critical values of 1%, 5%, 10% at Level ?S= 1st difference Critical values at 1%, 5%, 10% for ?S FTSE 100 -2.250374 -3.486064 -2.885863 -2.579818 -10.25769 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 Antofagasta -3.066955 -4.036983 -3.448021 -3.149135 -12.97182 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 Babdock -1.747700 -4.036983 -3.448021 -3.149135 -10.71888 -3.486551 -2.886074 -2.579931 HSBC Holdings -2.867695 -3.486064 -2.885863 -2.579818 -10.42942 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 Imperial tobacco -2.160689 -4.036983 -3.448021 -3.149135 -11.17921 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 Johnson matthey -2.543982 -4.036983 -3.448021 -3.149135 -10.41562 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 Meggit 0.828451 -2.584539 -1.943540 -1.614941 -11.56089 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 Morrison - 2.901854 -4.036983 -3.448021 -3.149135 -11.50647 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 Pearson plc -1.841245 -4.036983 -3.448021 -3.149135 -12.55195 -3.486551 -2.886074 -2.579931 Standard chartered bank -1.868623 -3.486064 -2.885863 -2.579818 -10.62130 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 Weir group -1.782673 -4.036983 -3.448021 -3.149135 -9.851895 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 Table 2: Augmented Dickey fuller (ADF) test (GBP/USD) Augmented Dickey fuller (ADF) test (GBP/USD) Currency X= Exchange rate Critical values of 1%, 5%, 10% at Level ?X= 1st difference Critical values at 1%, 5%, 10% for ?X GBP/USD -2.046301 -4.036983 -3.448021 -3.149135 -9.755815 -2.584707 -1.943563 -1.614927 According to the findings of the study, the ADF test results for the FTSE 100 index show that FTSE statistic value does not exceed the critical values at the 1%, 5%, and 10% critical levels. Therefore, the null hypothesis of the unit root for the index

Summarize Poor economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Summarize Poor economics - Essay Example Lack of resources and access to medication is a leading factor in the demise of children and adults alike in countries that are less developed. This is in spite of the availability of vaccination and medications. However, it is noted that money is the issue. There is limited availability of funds to facilitate the treatment of some diseases that can be easily controlled. Since they are unable to prevent diseases, they become less productive. In consequence, they are unable to work and move out of the poverty that affects their livelihood. Several examples of success and failure are given in equal measure. Banerjee and Duflo convince the readers that there are simpler solutions to poverty, rather than just relying on global help such as financial aid. Improving health provides a chance to increase productivity and stop the stagnant development that characterizes such areas (Banerjee and Duflo, 2011). The chapters in the book bring a deeper intuition on development. Abhijit Banerjee and Esther Duflo convincingly presents to the reader the traps that the 21st century poor generations indulge into with the assumption that they are helping themselves. The experiences of the poor, and the experiments they partake have been explained in a way that warns others on what to avoid. Chapter 3 focusses on health as a leading factor in the quest to eradicate

Mini leadership assigment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mini leadership assigment - Assignment Example Likewise, this brief analysis will consider the case of Robert Webb as a function of the key decisions and actions he has made within Hilton Hotels. As stated, one of the primary goals that motivated Robert Webb was a desire to streamline and update the Hilton Hotel brand. However, rather than falling into a pitfall of making broad and sweeping changes straight away with careful insight and collaboration with key shareholders, Webb slowly delved into the issue; utilizing both a top down and a bottom up approach (Press Release 2009). In this way, Webb typified the very definition of good leadership by exhibiting his keen levels of awareness by carefully communicating and listening to key shareholders (Aptio Highlight 2012). Similarly, by taking such an approach, Webb was able to lead from below rather than dictate from the top. Due to the support and shareholder buy-in, Webb’s changes became that much easier to institute company wide. A particularly unique concept of how Robert Webb engages with his shareholders is his primary emphasis on the communication process as a means of differentiating the needs and positions of key shareholders as a way of making an informed decision based upon the facts (Hickins 2012). Whereas many flawed leaders are quick to rush to judgment based on incomplete information and still others are fearful to act on any type of information for fear of making a mistake, Webb appears to split the difference between such positions nicely be actively seeking out knowledge and input from his shareholders and then after considering this at length – acting upon it. Says Webb of this process: â€Å"We’re only able to solve this with truthful, honest communication,† Webb says. â€Å"When people say ‘This is hard, I’m not sure I’m with you anymore,’ you need to get everyone to remember it’s about one team, one vision, and let’s get

Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 166

Summary - Essay Example rganization needs to provide more information to the customers and teach them how to use the organization’s goods and services properly and this will decrease the cost of dealing with them. If the problem is not solved then the organization should change the way the organizations charges money from the customer. If the problem continues then the organization should try to cut its cost by changing their channel of distribution for the customer. If nothing works, the organization should resort to end their relationship. This article has been authored by Hanssens et al. and in this article the author states that it is quite difficult for organizations to measure how effectively their investments in their marketing function have proven to be (Hanssens 1). For this purpose the authors develop a model for measuring the effectiveness of their investments in marketing. The purpose of developing the model was to provide marketers in making decisions regarding the selection of their products marketing mix with the aim of enhancing customer equity. The outcome of developing the model was that the researchers were able to develop equations that helped identifying how different investment factors resulted in different outcomes. For example: the researchers identified and equation which helped them in identifying the impact of increasing television based advertising on the aim of acquiring

Intro to Finance Essay Example for Free

Intro to Finance Essay An efficient financial system promotes intermediaries that successfully link â€Å"savers† from â€Å"borrowers† (Mankiw). There are two widely-known financial intermediaries namely the banks and mutual funds. Banks are highly accessible to the general public are generally more cost advantageous that direct lending. Generally, the banks main purpose in the economy is to take in deposits from savers and â€Å"use these deposits to make loans to people who want to borrow† (Mankiw, N. Gregory, 2001, Principles of Economics, p. 557). Banks incur costs by paying interest on these deposits and earn from these by charging higher interest rates on loan borrowers. Second to this, banks play an important role in the economy as they â€Å"facilitate the purchases of goods and services by allowing people to write checks against their deposits† (Mankiw, N. Gregory, 2001, Principles of Economics, p. 557). In this manner, the economy benefits from banks by this accessible medium of exchange. Unlike stocks or bonds which are not as immediate, checks make it easier for the public to exercise their monetary transactions. Mutual funds, on the other hand, are institutions that use the proceeds of selling shares in buying portfolios of stocks and bonds where they derive their profits. The financial markets become more accessible and efficient because mutual funds allow people with small savings to become owners and creditors of numerous companies. Also, mutual funds allow its shareholders the benefit of risk diversification wherein a single fund can carry a roster of diverse portfolios in stocks and bonds. A broker can either be an individual or a corporate entity that earns a fee-based profit by performing buy and sell orders from investors and/ or clients. A good example of this is a brokerage firm that specializes in trading company stocks and securities. A broker’s main functions in the financial market would include basic execution of buying and selling shares, and financial advisory to clients regarding the management of their shares/ stocks. With the emergence of automation and popular online brokerage firms, traditional brokers have redefined their place in the industry. Most popular online brokerage firms such as Ameritrade and E*Trade offer lower fees to investors as opposed to traditional brokers. Financial and Investment Advisory are also automated online via innovative investment software tools. With information becoming more accessible because of the internet, traditional brokers are now transitioning into online brokers wherein online orders are still routed to and monitored by them; and with reduced client-interface for advisories.

Managing Hospitality Enterprises Human Resource Management Recruitment Selection Business Essay

Managing Hospitality Enterprises Human Resource Management Recruitment Selection Business Essay Introduction The main purpose of recruitment and selection process is to select the right candidate for the job (Dale 2001). In a hospitality industry, it is often said that our people are the greatest asset (Hayes and Ninemeier 2009). People are a critical component in this industry as they are the ones that have the most interaction with the guests. Many successful hospitality leaders has this perception that by giving outstanding guest services it will lead to the company excelling and making profits. There is also a point in mind to take note as there is a need to identify the talented people in the organization and coming out with methods to train and retain them. These people must be kept satisfied and committed to the organization goals. At any one time people will be trying to either change their job or acquire a job and employers at the same time will be looking for employers (Nickson 2007). This indicates that all the workers in the external market are competing for jobs all the time. Due to the impact of the recent economic recession, employers would find it difficult to retain their top-performing employees as during this period the employees do not enjoy much benefit. Employers fear that employees would leave their current job and getting a better job. In a Hospitality Industry, it is often seen that attracting the locals to work are often more difficult to work. Among the many areas of the Human Resource Management, I feel that the most basic step in the Hospitality Industry is to recruit the right people for the Industry. Definition of Recruitment and Selection Recruitment is the process of attracting a pool of candidates for a vacant position, and selection is the technique of choosing a new member of the organization from the available candidates (McKenna and Beech 2008). Recruitment is the process of finding and engaging the people the organization needs and selection is that part of the recruitment process concerned with deciding applicants or candidates should be appointed to jobs (Armstrong 2009). According to this author there are four stages of recruitment and selection are as follows: Recruitment and selection stages Defining requirements preparing role profiles and person specifications; deciding terms and conditions of employment. Planning recruitment campaigns. Attracting candidates- reviewing and evaluating alternative sources of applicants, inside and outside the company: advertising, e-recruiting, agencies and consultants. Selecting candidates- sifting applications, interviewing, testing, assessing candidates, assessment centres, offering employment, obtaining references; preparing contracts of employment. The overall aim of the recruitment and selection process should be to obtain at minimum cost the number and quality of employees required to satisfy the needs of the company (Armstrong 1998). According to the same author there are only three stages of recruitment and selection which are: Defining requirements preparing job descriptions and specifications; deciding terms and conditions of employment. Attracting candidates reviewing and evaluating, alternative sources of applicants, inside and outside the company, advertising, using agencies and consultants. Selecting candidates sifting applicants, interviewing, testing, assessing candidates, assessment centers, offering employment, obtaining references; preparing contracts of employment. Among these three authors above, each of them gives different definition to what recruitment and selection is. The first author talks about just filling up the vacancy of any particular position in the company and choosing a new member without any consideration of whether that person is capable of doing the job. However the second author does resolve the issue of this by basically trying to see whether the persons goals is on the same track with what the organization is trying to achieve at the same time and after that selecting whether the person goals can fit into that particular position. The last author is basically trying to use the minimum resources available to achieve the maximum productivity of the company to gain profits. Out of all these three authors, the second author definition should be considered by Human Resource Managers as having the person with the same goals as the organization would help the company yield better results and as well as retention of the employees without worrying about them changing or quitting their jobs. Process of Recruitment and Selection The recruitment and selection process typically comprises of 4 stages. The first stage is to plan, the second is to recruit, the third is to select and the last stage is to induct (Peragamon Flexible Learning 2005). The first three stages of this process are very important. Being a HR manager, he/she needs to determine whether recruitment is necessary, the job specifications and writing a job description. After this, the most appropriate application methods are determined, deciding how to attract applicants and marketing the job. The next is to sift and shortlist applications, holding selection interviews, making a decision to offer and taking up references. The recruitment and selection process has 3 steps. The first step is to plan, the second is to recruit and the last is to select (Ingram et al. 2009). The recruitment and selection process is a complex process. There are four important identifiable phases in this process which are pre-recruitment, recruitment, select and induct (Lock 1998). The three authors point of view for the recruitment and selection process are basically the same except for the second author who only has 3 stages instead of 4 comparing with the other two authors. From this, the second author stopped at the point of selection of the applicants but do not do anything to further to evaluate the employee being selected. This should not be the case for any organization. After the employee is selected, all aspects of an organizations recruitment and policy should be known and clearly conveyed to the employee (James 2005). In a hospitality industry, the HR manager has to know the countrys HR policy before implementing the recruitment and selection process, this is so as not to make any unnecessary mistakes. For example, employing more foreigners than locals would mostly likely cause an outrage. Orientation is given to the new employees that are being selected by the HR. On the first day of employment, the employee is being shown the different parts of the Hotel to meet the different managers and the employees to get familiarize with the various departments. The employees are also shown the different facilities of the hotels as well in the process. Contact should always be maintained with the new employees until it becomes apparent that they have settled down and become part of the team. Every aspect of the recruitment and selection process should be implemented and executed perfectly so that the employee can perform better. Implementation of Effective Recruitment and Selection The recruitment and selection process serves only as a model of how an employee should be recruited and selected. Greater efforts are made to improve by having a sharper competitive edge so that good candidates are not lost to the competitors. This can be done in several ways which are E-recruitment, Technology; Streamlining, Screening and Keeping in closer touch (Rankin 2003). By the beginning of the twenty-first century, an increasing number of managers had become aware that attracting and selecting the best candidates is not an easy task, nor is it risk fee. The organization when I doubt, should not hire and keep looking so that resources are not wasted (Banfield and Kay 2008). Effective recruitment and selection of personnel should attempt to ensure that an individuals aspirations and capabilities are not too divergent (Sharma 2003). The three authors have different views about what is effective recruitment and selection, the first author view is basically to use the minimum costs possible to get the right employee for the job, the second author basically means to wait for the right candidate to appear for the job. The last author basically means that the employees goals and objectives are somewhat similar to what the organizations have. The best option would be the combination of the first and last author by using the minimum number of resources to get the employee which has the same goals and objectives as the organization. This would enable the company to save costs as well as getting the suitable employee for the job. In the hospitality industry, the image of it has been skeptical towards many people due to the fact that people has the misperception of this industry. The misperception includes factors such as the low salary, long working hours, long standing hours and giving service to customers. Basically anybody with a diploma or less can work in the hospitality industry such as being a waiter, a front office staff, a housekeeper, etc. With a bit of training, anyone is capable of the doing the job. Many people do not wish to serve people as most of them enjoyed being served. The best effective way now normally is through word of mouth by referrals or contacting hospitality schools to get students for internship and if possible get the graduates to go back to the hotel to work. This saves the hotel of wasting resources and effectively recruiting the graduates as they have already work in the hotel and no basic training is required for him/her. For any organizations, normally those well-known of that particular industry would receive more job applicants than others. For example, Hyatt Hotel would receive more applicants than other hotels. Therefore, what it can do is to have a group of people on the spot for selective recruitment and selection, out of 5 people, the best candidate would be selected by the manager. Lastly, the recruiter plays a very important role to ensure that the recruitment and selection is being implemented effectively. Outcomes of Recruitment and Selection The final outcome of the recruitment and selection stage is to consider and implement a carefully organized, systematic recruitment and selection process that qualifies candidates in ways that reduces the cost outlay overall (Thompsen 2010). Keeping costs low is paramount, but the senior management team should avoid going overboard with its cost-cutting efforts. For some highly qualified individuals, the experience of a low-budget recruiting process might be a deal-breaker. So the most successful companies seek a balance. For the median prospects, the cost outlay must remain low. The company should then reserve the most expensive recruiting techniques for the most highly qualified prospects. The above might seem an overly simplified list of desired outcomes, but it all points to one overarching outcome: Develop a fair, efficient, and effective recruitment and selection process. The outcomes list sets up the essential target of having a legally sound recruitment and selection process that also produces the perception of fairness. And in the end, the company that reaches all of these desired outcomes will be left with a high-powered, highly effective and low-cost recruiting strategy. Recruitment and selection can be an expensive activity and it is important that some attempt is made to evaluate the effectiveness of the methods used and to justify expenditure (Simms 2005). One of the difficulties is that is difficult to quantify the contribution that the newly recruited individual is making to the organization and the benefits. Even if this is possible, it is difficult to identify how different aspects of the procedure contribute to the recruitment and selection of a particular individual. For example, if a different, less expensive method had been used, the same individual might still have been appointed because they happened to be looking for a change of job at that particular point in time in that particular area of work or location. Although there may be too many contingencies and variables to evaluate in a meaningful and tangible way, recruitment and selection should nevertheless be evaluated and the outcome of the evaluation used to inform and revise future activities. Measures of the number and suitability of applications received through a particular recruitment method can provide information about the continuous appropriateness of a particular method. This sort of information can also be useful in evaluating other aspects of the process, for example, a usually large number of unsuitable applicants may indicate a poorly written advertisement or a very general person specification which needs to be revised for the future. It can be also useful to seek and evaluate feedback about the process from applicants, new recruits, managers and other staff involved in the process, and during exit interviews. Conclusion Recruitment and selection is a vital function of HR in the organization (Pattanayak 2005). The slightest mistake will lead to a square peg in round hole. In the long run, this would prove to be problematic as these people would pull the organization down. An organization periodically needs to attract applicants for their existing or future staffing needs (Pynes 2009). There are many methods of recruitments available. Recruitment Strategies should be planned in advance of the organizations needs. Strategic job analysis and audits of positions and employee skills should be updated on a regular basis to determine which incumbent employees are qualified for promotions or newly created positions. For some positions, depending on the qualifications and experience needed, HR may need to find applicants from the external labour market. In any organization, efforts should be made to recruit and select a diverse workforce by including individuals with disabilities, older employees and different types of races. Lastly, after recruitment and selection, the best recruitment and selection method should be pointed out and used for subsequent use. Evaluation of the employee is very important after that so that the organization knows how well the employee is doing or coping with the job. This will determine whether the choice of selecting this employee has been a correct decision. Retention of employees in the hospitality industry is very important even after recruitment and selection so that the employer do not repeat this process of recruiting and selecting a new employee and training the employee from scratch.

Causes of Software Crisis

Causes of Software Crisis This paper justifies the symptoms and primary causes of software crisis. You will see that the writer made a comparison of software crisis in different countries. We took the information from different articles published in UK, USA and Canada. The findings and suggestions are described at the end to minimise the risk involved while planning and developing a software project. Introduction We begin with the symptoms of Software crisis. Evidence is provided by the documents produced by US military on software crisis. Furthermore, Charelle, (2005) has complied some more astounding failure statistics of software crisis. We have also discussed the major causes of the software crisis and the description of those causes. The major factor of causing failure in Software management projects is lack of coordination between the teams itself. In last two decades the technology trend is going upward and small and big organizations are adopting the latest technologies and techniques to improve their output productivity. This report reflects the major symptoms and causes of a software crisis along with their description. In the end of the report we conclude with the suggestions to improve the whole process to avoid software crisis. Symptoms of Software Crisis Many researchers agree software project failures occur more frequently than they should, some of them have tinted a crisis within the software industry (Conte et al, 1986; DeMarco, 1982). To assess the success or failure of the project express on cost, delivery time, and quality, Glass (1998) highlighted these three main aspects. Circumstantial evidence is used to highlight the symptoms and primary causes of project failure which creates serious concerns. Comparison of software crisis between different countries The other main cause of software crisis is that the machines have become more powerful, if we compare with the past we had a few computer programming with a minor problem in software. Now we have huge computer programming with an equally huge problem in software. Some documents have been written to describe the failure of software project by US military and most of the software problem which had been identified in military area is the same in private sector. In this report the given table explain the major causes of software crisis, in 2001-2002 actual cost of National Insurance Recording System 2, Probation Service Crain, and Child Support Agency project increased for the reason of delays in project time, increase in actual costs and change of the system. Over cost of amount  £ 40.4 million increased in the project of (NIRS2) and same problem occurred in the project of (PSC) and an extra amount of  £ 50 million spent on the project of (CSA) to improve the system. Overall the cau ses of software crisis are linked to the complexity of hardware and software development process. Some other further evidence shows that in 2001, a planned project for Immigration and National Directorate was cancelled since department analyzed that new system would be more complex and needs an amount of  £ 77million for the implementation of the project that is difficult for the department to pay such huge amount for this project. In the dates of 2001/2002, another new issue of fraud was highlighted in the software project of Individual Learning Accounts; it was a Flagship Training Scheme and an amount of  £ 66.9 million was fixed for its implementation. In the sequence of heavy budgeted costs a software project for Defence Logistics Organization in the year of 2002 was suspended on the reason of insufficient funds to start this heavy cost project of an amount of  £ 120 million. In the table shows that in the year 1999 a software project for Passport Agency a cost of  £ 12. 6 million was suspended behind estimating high actual costs. In the prospect of high costs of software, in 1999 Home office scrapped the project that had been planned for improvement in prison services, estimated costs for this software project was about  £ 8 million. In the year 2002, a software project Libra for linkup the magistrates was under consideration and required an amount of  £ 134 million for implementation of this project. Overall in all above evidences, it shows that crisis of software apparent itself in several ways: Additionally, Charette (2005) has compiled some more shocking failure in project software it seems that project failure is not a problem of big companies and industries but software problem is occurred widely in small companies, in commercial and non-profit organizations and government departments. Software crisis occur caused by increasingly complexity in hardware and project failure seen to be universal. In the 2nd given tale shows that in 1993 a software project for London Ambulance Service was cancelled after second attempt, and in the same year in USA a project was mad for Allstate Insurance Company after a costing of high amount of $ 130 million abandoned the office automation system. London Stock Exchange cancelled its project of Tarus stock settlement system after costing of huge amount of $ 600 million. In the last few years various process and methodologies have been developed to control the software crises. However, it is widely agreed that there is no constant solution. W ith a heavy cost budget of $ 44 million and $ 2.6 billion on the project of DMV system for state of California and project for Federal Aviation Administration cancelled in 1994. In 1995 Toronto Stock Exchange cancelled it planned project for installation of Electronic trading system, project cost was estimated about $ 25.5 million. In 1996 a project of Arianespace (France) in the reason of error in the software, 5 rockets explode and huge amount of $ 350 were expended. A project of $ 40 million in 1997 was cancelled by the State of Washington that had planned for department of motor vehicle. In the same year International revenue (USA) cancelled its project that was for Tax modernization effort, an amount of $4.0 billion was estimated for implementation of this project. Snap-on Inc, (USA) an amount of $ 50 million wasted in the software failure occurred in the order- entry system in 1998. In the year, 1999 software problem occurred with ERP system in the project of Hershy Food Corpo ration (USA), and an amount of $ 151 million was invested. Software for Tax system was cancelled in date of 1999 by the State of Mississippi (USA) and project was about $ 11.2 million. A cost of $ 12 million was cancelled in 1999 by the United Way (USA) a software project was designed for the process of administration system. In the year 2000, huge spent of money for city payroll system abandoned, due to failure in the software in Washington DC. In USA, Nike Inc 2001, about $ 100 million lost in the reason of software problem in the supply-change management system. In Australia 2002 software project for Sydney Water Corporation to maintain the billing system was cancelled, project cost was about 33.2 million. In 2003/4 AT T Wireless (USA) faced deficiency spent of $ 100 million in up gradation of software for improved customer relation management. In 2004 Hewlet- Packard Company invested $ 160 million for ERP system, but still persist unsolved problem in its software. An amount of $ 527 million invested in the planned project of 1Sainsbury PLC (UK) in 2004, because of that software problem company abandoned the supply chain management system. In general, large software projects are more complicated than small software project. In 2005 Canadian company Hudson Bay faced a big software problem in inventory system; an amount of $ 33.3 million was invested for this project. For conducting a comprehensive survey 250 UK based organization had been selected to find out the defined software failure as: A project that has failed significantly to achieve its objectives and or has exceeded its original budget by at least 30% Major reasons of project failure in above mentioned countries Projects running over budget. Software was not up to the needs. Projects taking too long to complete or unnecessary delays. Substandard Production. Unable to meet the specific requirements. Difficult to operate and maintain.. Over budgeting. Primary cause of Software Crisis In the result of survey they found that nearby 62% of these selected organizations had at least one major software failure, these were considered primary causes of failure and have been updated by Glass (1998). Description of Causes by (Glass, 1998) The objectives were not clear. Improper table work. Not having the proper feel of the organization. Lack of project management methodology. HR laps or insufficient skilled staff. Coordination gaps between venders. Performance and efficiency issues. A list of primary casual factors has been produced by (Charette, 2005). Description of Causes by (Charette, 2005) Bad planning or run time decisions. Lack of documentation. Improper assessment. Incorrect estimates of needed resources. Impractical project goals. Not a good communication among customers, developers and users. Use of undeveloped technology. Inability to handle the projects complexity. Not a good project management. Stakeholder politics. Commercial pressure. Conclusion We can conclude that the most of the project failures were due to the coordination gaps between the technical project management team and the business decisions. We can overcome this crisis by better monitoring; during the assessment, planning, designing, production, implementation and maintenance phases. We can achive the goal of a successful and on time product by developing better understanding and coordination between the higher management and technical team. Its all about taking right decision at the right time and at the right place.

A Feminist Perspective of Othello Essay -- Feminism Feminist Women Cr

A Feminist Perspective of   Othello      Ã‚   Throughout the length of Shakespeare’s tragedy Othello there is a steady undercurrent of sexism. It is originating from not one, but rather various male characters in the play, who manifest prejudicial, discriminatory attitudes toward women.    In the opening scene, while Iago is expressing his hatred for the general Othello for his having chosen Michael Cassio for the lieutenancy, he contrives a plan to partially avenge himself (â€Å"I follow him to serve my turn upon him†), with Roderigo’s assistance, by alerting Desdemona’s father, Brabantio, to the fact of his daughter’s elopement with Othello: â€Å"Call up her father, / Rouse him: make after him, poison his delight [. . .] .† Implied in this move is the fact of a father’s assumed control over the daughter’s choice of a marriage partner. Iago’s warning to the senator follows closely: â€Å"'Zounds, sir, you're robb'd; for shame, put on your gown; / Your heart is burst, you have lost half your soul.† This statement also implies that the father has authority over the daughter. Brabantio’s admonition to Roderigo implicitly expresses the same message:    The worser welcome:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I have charged thee not to haunt about my doors:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In honest plainness thou hast heard me say   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   My daughter is not for thee [. . .] . (1.1)    Iago’s continuing earthy appraisals of the situation all seem to bestow upon the father the power to make decisions for the daughter. Roderigo even calls Desdemona’s action a â€Å"revolt† against paternal authority: â€Å"Your daughter, if you have not given her leave, /   I say again, hath made a gross revolt [. . .] .† Upon verifying the absence of his daughter from the home, Brabantio exhorts all fathe... ...view, LXIV, 1 (Winter 1956), 1-4, 8-10; and Arizona Quarterly (Spring 1956), pp.5-16.    Mack, Maynard. Everybody’s Shakespeare: Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.    Muir, Kenneth. Introduction. William Shakespeare: Othello. New York: Penguin Books, 1968.    Neely, Carol. "Women and Men in Othello" Critical Essays on Shakespeare's Othello. Ed. Anthony G. Barthelemy Pub. Macmillan New York, NY 1994. (page 68-90)       Shakespeare, William. Othello. In The Electric Shakespeare. Princeton University. 1996. http://www.eiu.edu/~multilit/studyabroad/othello/othello_all.html No line nos.    Wayne, Valerie. â€Å"Historical Differences: Misogyny and Othello.† The Matter of Difference: Materialist Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare. Ed Valerie Wayne. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991.

Comparing Hurrican Hits England and Not my Business Essay -- Grace Nic

Comparing Hurrican Hits England and Not my Business The two poems I am to compare are Grace Nichols â€Å"Hurricane Hits England† a poem that shows that the whole world is one world and how a storm reminds a Caribbean woman of home. The author obviously misses her home country and feels it in the storm which she wrote about, the violence of the storm is harsh and causes some damage. The second poem, with which I will be comparing â€Å"Hurricane...† is Niyi Osundare’s â€Å"Not my Business†. This poem describes the violent and horrific nature in which the Nigerian Government treated those people who disagreed with the state. It describes the pain and suffering they forced upon these people and how the pain and suffering is then brought to the narrator. This poem is about shared responsibilities and the way that tyranny grows if no one opposes it. It is composed, simply, of three stories about victims of the oppressors, followed by the experience of the speaker in the poem, in which he has not done anything, but the fact that he knows makes him a target. The poet is Nigerian but the situation in the poem could be from many countries, there are words used like â€Å"yam†, and the names of the people which tell you this. The poem echoes, in its four parts, a statement by Pastor Martin Niemà ¶ller, who opposed the Nazis. Speaking later to many audiences he would conclude with these words, more or less: â€Å"First, they came for the socialists, and I did not speak out because I was not a socialist. Then they came for the trade unionists, and I did not speak out because I was not a trade unionist. Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out because I was not a Jew. Then they came for me, and there was no one left to speak... ...oem. The last lines of this poem emphasise the confusion surrounding why they are there. The line, â€Å"The jeep was waiting on my bewildered lawn† is personification which suggests that no-one, not even his lawn, knows why it’s happening. And then a repetition of the word â€Å"Waiting† makes it seem as though the men have to do a lot of waiting and that time maybe seems to go so slowly because of these things that are happening. Both of these poems are excellent at enforcing their own point in their own ways, â€Å"Hurricane†¦Ã¢â‚¬  through tactile emotional words and beautiful yet violent images of the storm, and â€Å"Not My Business.† through blatant disregard for human life depicted through the eyes of a hunted man, who is hunted because he knows what is going on. All in all two excellent and well thought out poems, each with their own perfectly presented message.

Society and Sexuality in Waiting for the Barbarians and The History of

Society and Sexuality in Waiting for the Barbarians, and The History of Sexuality  Ã‚   Within our modern minds reside two very different ways in which we deal with the subject of sexuality. The conceptual framework of modern society, to some extent, has developed out of past notions about the body. We can see that springing from our historical roots, issues concerning sexuality have been dealt with through mutual feelings of desire and disgust. The relationship between these two opposed feelings arises from a dual sense of our awareness of our sexuality. One direction we are pointed in, is to view anything sexual in content, as socially digressive. The other crosses to the opposite extreme. Sexuality is something which is talked about constantly, but usually not openly. We are also, in some ways, drawn by our sexuality to feel desire for our "other side"--the side which we do not show to many other people. Both of the poles represent aspects of a spectrum on which all of us lie, at once drawn to both extremes. The fact that we fall somewhere on that scale in the first place, points to another reason outside the reaches of the immediate family. The situation we are placed in as individuals of modernity, is an arena of pre-constructed rules and regulations regarding our sexuality. The doctrine of sex in our world has been determined by the actions and thoughts of past generations. We build upon their conceptual machinery to g enerate our own meaning within the world. The duality between desire and disgust, in relation to sexuality, is something which has been passed down to us through generations of social learning. In his book, The History of Sexuality, Michel Foucault presents evidence pointing to the connection between... ...nterest in the subject as a hidden part of human existence. The double mechanism of distancing one’s self and the desire to personally experience something, serves to formulate the ways in which we view our sexuality. Through the creation of this binary relationship, we as a society, have been taught that there are parts of ourselves which are off limits in normal discussion. To go past those lines is to travel in realms which hint of "perversion" or of experiencing an "alternate lifestyle". This societal creation tells us that some parts of our personality are ones which we should not explore, though we might be driven to. It is because of those drives, which exist in all of us, that we are forced to come to terms with ourselves, and what it means to be a part of our society. Works Cited: Coetzee, J.M. 1980 Waiting for the Barbarians Harmondsworth, Penguin.

Effects of Unresolved Conflict on Marital Satisfaction and Longevity Essay

Effects of Unresolved Conflict on Marital Satisfaction and Longevity   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Over the past decade, there has been tremendous interest in the processes in marriage, with a corresponding burgeoning of longitudinal studies on marriage. (Bradbury, 1998). Karney and Bradbury, in their 1995 review of the longitudinal research on marriage, included 115 studies consisting of 68 independent samples and more than 45,000 marriages. These studies give an in-depth understanding of when marital dissatisfaction sets in, how problems develop, and what leads to the consequence of marital dissolution.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Longitudinal studies on the early years of marriage report a common phenomenon: Marital satisfaction declines and conflict increase (Huston & Houts, 1998; Kurdek, 1998; Leonard & Roberts, 1998; Lindahl et al., 1998). Kurdek found that marital satisfaction for husbands and wives decreased over the first 6 years of marriage, with the steepest drop occurring in the first 2 years. Lindahl et al. (1998), in their 9 year study of the development of marriage, found a similar rend. Marital adjustment significantly declined during the first couple of years and then leveled out by approximately the third to fourth years. Several factors seem to account for this decline: commitment, conflict, and communication. In particular, husbands and wives low faith in the marriage at year 1 predicted both spouses long- term low marital satisfaction. Spouses with low faith at the start of the marriage may report low marital satisfaction 6 years later because they lack the motivation or the skill to engage in the kinds of relationship maintenance behaviors that foster high levels of satisfaction (e.g., being accommodating during conflict, managing jealousy, and being willing to sacrifice). Many researchers attribute the decline in marital satisfaction in the early years to the couple’s transition to parenthood, and typically this factor has been a focus of their studies. However, this factor alone does not seem to account for the lower satisfaction, because many couples without children also experience a similar decline.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The occurrence of conflict appears as another critical variable in the course of marital satisfaction. Conflict is inevitable in any intimate relationship. How it affects satisfaction depends on the extent to which couples engage in conflict or withdraw from it. There are usually short-term negative effects to engaging in conflict, but there are long-term positive effects. If conflict is not openly addressed but is avoided, there are issues that can be left unresolved and further fuel feeling of resentment and anger. In their longitudinal study of 33 couples, Noller and Feeney (1998) found that, during the first 2 years of marriage, less happy couples made concerted attempt to improve their relationships during the first yea of marriage, but gave up these efforts by the time of the third assessment in the study. Noller and Feeney suggested that these new behaviors to improve the relationship were not being reinforced by the partner and hence did not become an integral part of the behavior repertoire. In particular, destructive conflict behaviors such as coercion, manipulation, and avoidance were likely to have negative effects on relationships.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Similarly, particular patterns of communication can have long-term effects on relationship satisfaction. In the Noller and Feeney study, communication behaviors predicted later satisfaction for wives only. Wives reports of negativity, disengagement, and destructive processes at Time 1 predicted lower satisfaction at Time 2. These destructive patterns of communication that cause problems later in relationships had developed before the couple became married. Although most of the couples in this study were not living together prior to marriage, it appears that their patterns of communication and resolving conflict were established before they even had to handle particular issues involved in living together in a marriage.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Other researchers have also discovered that how couples behave prior to marriage indeed affects their satisfaction and stability during marriage. According to Lindhl et al. (1998), a variety of communication and conflict-related variables before marriage can predict who will stay married and who will divorce. In particular, they found that how couples communicate and regulate negative effect (anger, frustration, mistrust, and resentment) during conflict was significantly related to marital stability. The strategies that these couples used to handle conflict tended to improve over time. For example, the levels of withdrawal and verbal aggression decreased.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In their longitudinal studies of marital processes, Rusbult, Bissonnette, Arriage, and Cox (1998) found commitment to a relationship to be strongly predictive of feelings of satisfaction. Their study followed 123 married couples over the course of three and one half years. They concluded that commitment is a central relationship-specific motive that promotes a wide range of prorelationship behaviors and enhances dyadic adjustment. Strong commitment to a marriage promotes greater willingness to accommodate. Accommodation is defined as behavior in which individuals forgo self-interested behavior for the good of a relationship, place greater value on prorelationship behavior, and recognize the interdependence of the partners. It is one of several specific mechanisms through which committed individuals sustain their relationships.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As incompatibilities and problems surface during the marriage, partners either accept each other’s differences or the problem that are not resolved persist until the relationship dissolves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The perpetual problems model views couples behaving similarly during courtship as they do after they are married, and consequently the problems that arise during courtship often persist into marriage. Thus, problems that persist from courtship through marriage erode partner’s feelings toward one another. In contrast to the disillusionment model, the perpetual problems model proposes that courting couples are aware of each other’s strength and flaw as they enter marriage.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Alternative models of relationship deterioration emphasize that particular personalities of the partners are root cause of marital happiness and distress. In these models, spouses view their partners, but not their own, personality as cause for marital disaffection. In particular, the partners with the personality trait of negative affectivity are more likely to be unhappy in their marriages. Negative affectivity reflects a tendency to be anxious and emotionally labile, to report distress or discomfort, to be introspective, and to dwell on one’s own and other people’s shortcomings. Husbands and wives high in negative affectivity tend to make more negative attributions for their partner’s behavior. In the Karney et al. study, there was a relation between husbands’ level of negative affectivity and their own and their wave’s marital satisfaction. On the positive side, a personality quality that is resulted to marital satisfaction is expressiveness, which is a communal orientation that includes being kind, gentle, aware of other’s feeling, warm, and emotional, and which might reduce conflict in relationships because one can respond constructively when one’s partners behaves poorly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is apparent that many of these disaffected spouses suffered in silence. They were reluctant to admit marital problems to friends and family. because the majority of respondents had experienced marital doubts during the first year of the marriage, it may have been too embarrassing to these spouses to admit dissatisfaction so early in their marriages. In addition, there is a taboo in Western culture that discourages spouses from talking about their marriages. This so-called intermarital taboo states that married sposes cannot talk openly to each other about their marriages. Unfortunately, because of this taboo, couples do not have the chance to share with one another the stresses of married life and the possible ways to cope effectively with them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the other hand, resolving conflict is part of family life. Husbands and wives disagree with each other, parents and children do not always see eye to eye and sibling relationships frequently involve rivalry. The characteristic ways in which families resolve conflict are an important part of the practicing family and influence child development. Children are sensitive to anger and conflict even when adults other than their parents express it. Unresolved marital conflict is more predictive of child functioning than marital satisfaction alone; suggesting that the specific ways that husbands and wives resolve conflict may be related to child social and emotional functioning. Not at all marital conflict is detrimental to children, however. Exposure to low levels of marital conflict may provide one avenue for children to learn how to solve interpersonal problems effectively.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Particular patterns of marital interaction have been found to be related to couples distress, the likelihood of divorce, and child behavior problems. Couples whose conflict is typified by mutually hostile exchanges, or one partner making demands while the other withdraws from further discussion, are less satisfied in their marriages and are at greater risk for divorce have proposed that children raised in families with high levels of marital conflict may become fearful that their parents are on the road to divorce and dissolution of important family relationships. Consequently, the child is motivated to reduce marital conflict by distracting the parent’s subsystem and decrease the conflict expressed in the marital subsystem. In this regard, the battling husband and wife are enlisted as cooperative mother and father, and the result is a temporary reduction in marital negative affect. Although there may be increased negative affect between parent and child, the system has retained its order and the subsystem of parent –child regulation temporarily overrides the marital subsystem and preserves the family as a whole.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Meanwhile, interactions in one portion of the family will more than likely influence other interactions in the family. The cost to children can be quite high when there is disruption in the marital relationships, as it effects the parents’ ability to engage in mutually pleasing interactions with their children. Marital difficulties are proposed to lead to inconsistent parenting and discipline, which in turn create situations conducive to child behavior problems. Externalizing problems in elementary-school-age boys have been found to be best predicted by a model of family stress (including marital satisfaction and divorce) mediated by negative maternal control and disciplinary interactions. In some cases, there is a cascading effect, where specific aspects of marital conflict spill over into parent-child interactions. When husbands withdrew in angry conflicts with their wives, the wives tended to be critical and intrusive with their children, which in turn were related to internalizing problems.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Love, money, support, security, companionship, and validation are types of rewards desired in a close relationship. The cost of staying in a relationship may involve one’s time, energy, and various other efforts. During thee breakdown of a relationship, there is a drastic shift in perceived rewards or costs. This shift may be to the individual’s view of fewer rewards, such as less time together and less money, as examples, or what may have been perceived as a reward earlier in the marriages is no longer rewarding. For example, the continual care and attention given by a partner may have been viewed as rewarding in the beginning of the relationship, but later is viewed as smothering or manipulative. Although disappointed in the marriage, the disaffecting spouses were not contemplating leaving the marriage at this time, but were holding on to the hope that the marital relationship would improve. In general, the disaffecting spouses assumed responsibility for marriage problems. They tried to change the marriage by pleasing and accommodating their partners, trying to be a perfect spouse, in the words of one respondent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In coping with their marital dissatisfaction, respondents were primarily keeping silent and denying the gravity of the marital situations. Seeking support and help from their friends, family, or a professional helper rarely occurred. References Bradbury, T. N. (1998). The Developmental course of marital dysfunction. N.Y:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cambridge University Press. Huston, T. L., & Houts, R. M. (1998). The psychological infrastructure of courtship and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Marriage: The role of personality and compatibility in romantic relationships. In T. N. Bradbury (Ed.). The developmental course of marital Dysfunction (pp.114-151). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Kurdek, L. A. (1998). Development change in marital satisfaction:   A 6 year prospective longitudinal study of newly wed couples. In T. N. Bradbury (Ed.). The developmental course of marital Dysfunction (pp.180-204). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Leonard, K. E., & Roberts, L. J. (1998). Marital aggression, quality, and stability in the First year of marriage: Findings from the Buffalo newlywed study.   In T. N. Bradbury (ed.), The developmental course of marital Dysfunction (pp.44-73). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Lindahl, K., Clements, M., & Markman, H. (1998). The development of marriage: A 9   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Year perspective. In T. N. Bradbury (ed.), The developmental course of marital   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dysfunction (pp.2005-236). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Noller, P., & Feeney, J. A. (1998). Communication in early marriage: Response to   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   conflict, nonverbal accuracy, and conversational patterns. In T.N Bradbury (ed.),   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The developmental course of marital dysfunction (pp.11-43). Cambridge,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   England: Cambridge University press. Rusbult, C. E., Bissonnette, V., Arriaga, X. B. & Cox, C. L., (1998). Accommodation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   during the early years of marriage. In T. N. 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